运动的健康益处

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Health effects

A common elliptical training machine

US Marines exercising on theUSS Bataan

Physical exercise is important for maintaining physical fitness and can contribute positively to maintaining a healthy weight, building and maintaining healthy bone density, muscle strength, and joint mobility, promoting physiological well-being, reducing surgical risks, and strengthening the immune system.

Exercise reduces levels of cortisol[13], which causes many health problems, both physical and mental.[14]

Frequent and regular aerobic exercise has been shown to help prevent or treat serious and life-threatening chronic conditions such as high blood pressure,obesity, heart disease, Type 2 diabetes, insomnia, and depression.[15] Endurance exercise before meals lowers blood glucose more than the same exercise after meals.[16] According to the World Health Organization, lack of physical activity contributes to approximately 17% of heart disease and diabetes, 12% of falls in the elderly, and 10% of breast cancer and colon cancer.[17]

There is some evidence that vigorous exercise (90–95% of VO2 Max) is more beneficial than moderate exercise (40 to 70% of VO2 Max).[18] Some studies have shown that vigorous exercise executed by healthy individuals can increase opioid peptides (a.k.a. endorphins, naturally occurring opioids that in conjunction with other neurotransmitters are responsible for exercise-induced euphoria and have been shown to be addictive), increase testosterone and growth hormone,[19] effects that are not as fully realized with moderate exercise. More recent research[20][21]indicates that anandamide may play a greater role than endorphins in "runner's high". However, training at this[which?] intensity for long periods of time, or without proper warmup beforehand and cooldown afterwards, can lead to an increased risk of injury and overtraining.[citation needed]

Both aerobic and anaerobic exercise work to increase the mechanical efficiency of the heart by increasing cardiac volume (aerobic exercise), or myocardial thickness (strength training). Such changes are generally beneficial and healthy if they occur in response to exercise.

Not everyone benefits equally from exercise. There is tremendous variation in individual response to training; where most people will see a moderate increase in endurance from aerobic exercise, some individuals will as much as double their oxygen uptake, while others can never augment endurance.[22][23] However, muscle hypertrophy from resistance training is primarily determined by diet and testosterone.[24] This genetic variation in improvement from training is one of the key physiological differences between elite athletes and the larger population.[25][26] Studies have shown that exercising in middle age leads to better physical ability later in life.[27]

[edit]Cardiovascular system

The beneficial effect of exercise on the cardiovascular system is well documented. There is a direct relation between physical inactivity and cardiovascular mortality, and physical inactivity is an independent risk factor for the development of coronary artery disease. There is a dose-response relation between the amount of exercise performed from approximately 700 to 2000 cal of energy expenditure per week and all-cause mortality and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle-aged and elderly populations. The greatest potential for reduced mortality is in the sedentary who become moderately active. Most beneficial effects of physical activity on cardiovascular disease mortality can be attained through moderate-intensity activity (40% to 60% of maximal oxygen uptake, depending on age). ... persons who modify their behavior after myocardial infarction to include regular exercise have improved rates of survival. ... Persons who remain sedentary have the highest risk for all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality.[28]

[edit]Immune system

Although there have been hundreds of studies on exercise and the immune system, there is little direct evidence on its connection to illness. Epidemiological evidence suggests that moderate exercise has a beneficial effect on the human immune system; an effect which is modeled in a J curve. Moderate exercise has been associated with a 29% decreased incidence of upper respiratory tract infections (URTI), but studies of marathon runners found that their prolonged high-intensity exercise was associated with an increased risk of infection occurrence. However, another study did not find the effect. Immune cell functions are impaired following acute sessions of prolonged, high-intensity exercise, and some studies have found that athletes are at a higher risk for infections. The immune systems of athletes and nonathletes are generally similar. Athletes may have slightly elevated natural killer cellcount and cytolytic action, but these are unlikely to be clinically significant.[29]

Vitamin C supplementation has been associated with lower incidence of URTIs in marathon runners.[29]

Biomarkers of inflammation such as C-reactive protein, which are associated with chronic diseases, are reduced in active individuals relative to sedentary individuals, and the positive effects of exercise may be due to its anti-inflammatory effects. The depression in the immune system following acute bouts of exercise may be one of the mechanisms for this anti-inflammatory effect.[29]

[edit]Brain function

A 2008 review of cognitive enrichment therapies (strategies to slow or reverse cognitive decline) concluded that "physical activity, and aerobic exercise in particular, enhances older adults' cognitive function".[30]

In mice, exercise improves cognitive functioning via improvement of hippocampus-dependent spatial learning, and enhancement of synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis.[31] In addition, physical activity has been shown to be neuroprotective in many neurodegenerative and neuromuscular diseases.[32] For instance, it reduces the risk of developing dementia.[33] Furthermore, anecdotal evidence suggests that frequent exercise may reverse alcohol-induced brain damage.[34]

There are several possibilities for why exercise is beneficial for the brain. Examples are as follows:

• increasing the blood and oxygen flow to the brain
• increasing growth factors that help create new nerve cells[35] and promote synaptic plasticity[36]
• increasing chemicals in the brain that help cognition, such as dopamine, glutamate, norepinephrine, andserotonin[37]
  

Physical activity is thought to have other beneficial effects related to cognition as it increases levels of nerve growth factors, which support the survival and growth of a number of neuronal cells.[38]

[edit]Depression

A number of factors may contribute to depression including being overweight, low self esteem, stress, and anxiety.[39] Endorphins act as a natural pain reliever and antidepressant in the body.[40] Endorphins have long been regarded as responsible for what is known as "runner's high", a euphoric feeling a person receives from intense physical exertion.[41] However, recent research[20][21] indicates that anandamide may possibly play a greater role than endorphins in "runner's high". When a person exercises, levels of both circulating serotonin and endorphins are increased.[42] These levels are known to stay elevated even several days after exercise is discontinued, possibly contributing to improvement in mood, increased self-esteem, and weight management.[41] Exercise alone is a potential prevention method and/or treatment for mild forms of depression.[43] Research has also shown that when exercise is done in the presence of other people (familiar or not), it can be more effective in reducing stress than simply exercising alone.[44]

[edit]Sleep

A 2010 review of published scientific research suggested that exercise generally improves sleep for most people, and helps sleep disorders such as insomnia. The optimum time to exercise may be 4 to 8 hours before bedtime, though exercise at any time of day is beneficial, with the possible exception of heavy exercise taken shortly before bedtime, which may disturb sleep. There is, in any case, insufficient evidence to draw detailed conclusions about the relationship between exercise and sleep.[45]

[edit]Excessive exercise

Exercise is a stressor and the stresses of exercise have a catabolic effect on the body—contractile proteins within muscles are consumed for energy, carbohydrates and fats are similarly consumed and connective tissues are stressed and can form micro-tears.[citation needed] However, given adequate nutrition and sufficient rest to avoidovertraining, the body's reaction to this stimulus is to adapt and replete tissues at a higher level than that existing before exercising.[citation needed] The results are all the training effects of regular exercise: increased muscular strength, endurance, bone density, and connective tissue toughness.[citation needed]

Too much exercise can be harmful. Without proper rest, the chance of stroke or other circulation problems increases,[46] and muscle tissue may develop slowly. Extremely intense, long-term cardiovascular exercise, as can be seen in athletes who train for multiple marathons, has been associated with scarring of the heart and heart rhythm abnormalities.[47][48][49]

Inappropriate exercise can do more harm than good, with the definition of "inappropriate" varying according to the individual. For many activities, especially running and cycling, there are significant injuries that occur with poorly regimented exercise schedules. Injuries from accidents also remain a major concern,[50] whereas the effects of increased exposure to air pollution seem only a minor concern.[51][52]

In extreme instances, over-exercising induces serious performance loss. Unaccustomed overexertion of muscles leads to rhabdomyolysis (damage to muscle) most often seen in new army recruits.[53] Another danger is overtraining, in which the intensity or volume of training exceeds the body's capacity to recover between bouts.[54]

Stopping excessive exercise suddenly can also create a change in mood. Feelings of depression and agitation can occur when withdrawal from the natural endorphins produced by exercise occurs.[citation needed] Exercise should be controlled by each body's inherent limitations. While one set of joints and muscles may have the tolerance to withstand multiple marathons, another body may be damaged by 20 minutes of light jogging. This must be determined for each individual.

Too much exercise can also cause a female to miss her period, a symptom known as amenorrhea.[55]

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