肥胖的原因

jacky

CausesAt an individual level, a combination of excessive food energy intake and a lack of physical activity is thought to explain most cases of obesity.[63] A limited number of cases are due primarily to genetics, medical reasons, or psychiatric illness.[64] In contrast, increasing rates of obesity at a societal level are felt to be due to an easily accessible and palatable diet,[65] increased reliance on cars, and mechanized manufacturing.[66][67]
A 2006 review identified ten other possible contributors to the recent increase of obesity: (1) insufficient sleep, (2) endocrine disruptors (environmental pollutants that interfere with lipid metabolism), (3) decreased variability in ambient temperature, (4) decreased rates of smoking, because smoking suppresses appetite, (5) increased use of medications that can cause weight gain (e.g., atypical antipsychotics), (6) proportional increases in ethnic and age groups that tend to be heavier, (7) pregnancy at a later age (which may cause susceptibility to obesity in children), (8) epigenetic risk factors passed on generationally, (9) natural selection for higher BMI, and (10) assortative mating leading to increased concentration of obesity risk factors (this would increase the number of obese people by increasing population variance in weight).[68] While there is substantial evidence supporting the influence of these mechanisms on the increased prevalence of obesity, the evidence is still inconclusive, and the authors state that these are probably less influential than the ones discussed in the previous paragraph.
DietMain article: Diet and obesity

Map of dietary energy availability per person per day in 1961 (left) and 2001–2003 (right) in kcal/person/day.[69] [size=100%] no data [size=100%] <1600 [size=100%] 1600–1800 [size=100%] 1800–2000 [size=100%] 2000–2200 [size=100%] 2200–2400 [size=100%] 2400–2600 [size=100%] 2600–2800 [size=100%] 2800–3000 [size=100%] 3000–3200 [size=100%] 3200–3400 [size=100%] 3400–3600 [size=100%] >3600

Average per capita energy consumption of the world from 1961 to 2002[69]


The per capita dietary energy supply varies markedly between different regions and countries. It has also changed significantly over time.[69] From the early 1970s to the late 1990s the average calories available per person per day (the amount of food bought) increased in all parts of the world except Eastern Europe. The United States had the highest availability with 3,654 calories per person in 1996.[69] This increased further in 2003 to 3,754.[69] During the late 1990s Europeans had 3,394 calories per person, in the developing areas of Asia there were 2,648 calories per person, and in sub-Saharan Africa people had 2,176 calories per person.[69][70] Total calorie consumption has been found to be related to obesity.[71]
The widespread availability of nutritional guidelines[72] has done little to address the problems of overeating and poor dietary choice.[73] From 1971 to 2000, obesity rates in the United States increased from 14.5% to 30.9%.[74] During the same period, an increase occurred in the average amount of food energy consumed. For women, the average increase was 335 calories per day (1,542 calories in 1971 and 1,877 calories in 2004), while for men the average increase was 168 calories per day (2,450 calories in 1971 and 2,618 calories in 2004). Most of this extra food energy came from an increase in carbohydrate consumption rather than fat consumption.[75] The primary sources of these extra carbohydrates are sweetened beverages, which now account for almost 25 percent of daily food energy in young adults in America,[76] and potato chips.[77] Consumption of sweetened drinks is believed to be contributing to the rising rates of obesity.[78][79]
As societies become increasingly reliant on energy-dense, big-portions, and fast-food meals, the association between fast-food consumption and obesity becomes more concerning.[80] In the United States consumption of fast-food meals tripled and food energy intake from these meals quadrupled between 1977 and 1995.[81]
Agricultural policy and techniques in the United States and Europe have led to lower food prices. In the United States, subsidization of corn, soy, wheat, and rice through the U.S. farm bill has made the main sources of processed food cheap compared to fruits and vegetables.[82]
Obese people consistently under-report their food consumption as compared to people of normal weight.[83] This is supported both by tests of people carried out in a calorimeter room[84] and by direct observation.
Sedentary lifestyleSee also: Sedentary lifestyle and Exercise trends
A sedentary lifestyle plays a significant role in obesity.[85] Worldwide there has been a large shift towards less physically demanding work,[86][87][88] and currently at least 60% of the world's population gets insufficient exercise.[87] This is primarily due to increasing use of mechanized transportation and a greater prevalence of labor-saving technology in the home.[86][87][88] In children, there appear to be declines in levels of physical activity due to less walking and physical education.[89] World trends in active leisure time physical activity are less clear. The World Health Organization indicates people worldwide are taking up less active recreational pursuits, while a study from Finland[90] found an increase and a study from the United States found leisure-time physical activity has not changed significantly.[91]
In both children and adults, there is an association between television viewing time and the risk of obesity.[92][93][94] A review found 63 of 73 studies (86%) showed an increased rate of childhood obesity with increased media exposure, with rates increasing proportionally to time spent watching television.[95]
GeneticsMain article: Genetics of obesity
[url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filea_monstrua_desnuda_(1680),_de_Juan_Carre%C3%B1o_de_Miranda..jpg][/url] [url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filea_monstrua_desnuda_(1680),_de_Juan_Carre%C3%B1o_de_Miranda..jpg][/url]
A 1680 painting by Juan Carreno de Miranda of a girl presumed to have Prader-Willi syndrome[96]


Like many other medical conditions, obesity is the result of an interplay between genetic and environmental factors. Polymorphisms in various genes controlling appetite and metabolism predispose to obesity when sufficient food energy present. As of 2006 more than 41 of these sites have been linked to the development of obesity when a favorable environment is present.[97] People with two copies of the FTO gene (fat mass and obesity associated gene) has been found on average to weigh 3–4 kg more and have a 1.67-fold greater risk of obesity compared to those without the risk allele.[98] The percentage of obesity that can be attributed to genetics varies, depending on the population examined, from 6% to 85%.[99]
Obesity is a major feature in several syndromes, such as Prader-Willi syndrome, Bardet-Biedl syndrome, Cohen syndrome, and MOMO syndrome. (The term "non-syndromic obesity" is sometimes used to exclude these conditions.)[100] In people with early-onset severe obesity (defined by an onset before 10 years of age and body mass index over three standard deviations above normal), 7% harbor a single point DNA mutation.[101]
Studies that have focused upon inheritance patterns rather than upon specific genes have found that 80% of the offspring of two obese parents were obese, in contrast to less than 10% of the offspring of two parents who were of normal weight.[102]
The thrifty gene hypothesis postulates that due to dietary scarcity during human evolution people are prone to obesity. Their ability to take advantage of rare periods of abundance by storing energy as fat would be advantageous during times of varying food availability, and individuals with greater adipose reserves would be more likely survive famine. This tendency to store fat, however, would be maladaptive in societies with stable food supplies.[103] This theory has received various criticisms and other evolutionarily based theories such as the drifty gene hypothesis and the thrifty phenotype hypothesis have also been proposed.[104][105]
Other illnessesCertain physical and mental illnesses and the pharmaceutical substances used to treat them can increase risk of obesity. Medical illnesses that increase obesity risk include several rare genetic syndromes (listed above) as well as some congenital or acquired conditions: hypothyroidism, Cushing's syndrome, growth hormone deficiency,[106] and the eating disorders: binge eating disorder and night eating syndrome.[2] However, obesity is not regarded as a psychiatric disorder, and therefore is not listed in the DSM-IVR as a psychiatric illness.[107] The risk of overweight and obesity is higher in patients with psychiatric disorders than in persons without psychiatric disorders.[108]
Certain medications may cause weight gain or changes in body composition; these include insulin, sulfonylureas, thiazolidinediones, atypical antipsychotics, antidepressants, steroids, certain anticonvulsants (phenytoin and valproate), pizotifen, and some forms of hormonal contraception.[2]
Social determinantsMain article: Social determinants of obesity
While genetic influences are important to understanding obesity, they cannot explain the current dramatic increase seen within specific countries or globally.[109] Though it is accepted that energy consumption in excess of energy expenditure leads to obesity on an individual basis, the cause of the shifts in these two factors on the societal scale is much debated. There are a number of theories as to the cause but most believe it is a combination of various factors.
The correlation between social class and BMI varies globally. A review in 1989 found that in developed countries women of a high social class were less likely to be obese. No significant differences were seen among men of different social classes. In the developing world, women, men, and children from high social classes had greater rates of obesity.[110] An update of this review carried out in 2007 found the same relationships, but they were weaker. The decrease in strength of correlation was felt to be due to the effects of globalization.[111] Among developed countries, levels of adult obesity, and percentage of teenage children who are overweight, are correlated with income inequality. A similar relationship is seen among US states: more adults, even in higher social classes, are obese in more unequal states.[112]
Many explanations have been put forth for associations between BMI and social class. It is thought that in developed countries, the wealthy are able to afford more nutritious food, they are under greater social pressure to remain slim, and have more opportunities along with greater expectations for physical fitness. In undeveloped countries the ability to afford food, high energy expenditure with physical labor, and cultural values favoring a larger body size are believed to contribute to the observed patterns.[111] Attitudes toward body mass held by people in one's life may also play a role in obesity. A correlation in BMI changes over time has been found among friends, siblings, and spouses.[113] Stress and perceived low social status appear to increase risk of obesity.[112][114][115]
Smoking has a significant effect on an individual's weight. Those who quit smoking gain an average of 4.4 kilograms (9.7 lb) for men and 5.0 kilograms (11.0 lb) for women over ten years.[116] However, changing rates of smoking have had little effect on the overall rates of obesity.[117]
In the United States the number of children a person has is related to their risk of obesity. A woman's risk increases by 7% per child, while a man's risk increases by 4% per child.[118] This could be partly explained by the fact that having dependent children decreases physical activity in Western parents.[119]
In the developing world urbanization is playing a role in increasing rate of obesity. In China overall rates of obesity are below 5%; however, in some cities rates of obesity are greater than 20%.[120]
Malnutrition in early life is believed to play a role in the rising rates of obesity in the developing world.[121] Endocrine changes that occur during periods of malnutrition may promote the storage of fat once more food energy becomes available.[121]
Consistent with cognitive epidemiological data, numerous studies confirm that obesity is associated with cognitive deficits. [122] Whether obesity causes cognitive deficits, or vice versa is unclear at present.
Infectious agentsSee also: Infectobesity
The study of the effect of infectious agents on metabolism is still in its early stages. Gut flora has been shown to differ between lean and obese humans. There is an indication that gut flora in obese and lean individuals can affect the metabolic potential. This apparent alteration of the metabolic potential is believed to confer a greater capacity to harvest energy contributing to obesity. Whether these differences are the direct cause or the result of obesity has yet to be determined unequivocally.[123]
An association between viruses and obesity has been found in humans and several different animal species. The amount that these associations may have contributed to the rising rate of obesity is yet to be determined.[124


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